I
An Introduction to Jainism
Dr.
Meredith Sprunger
This document contains an historical overview of Jainism,
Mahavira, and the relationship of Jainism to Hinduism and Buddhism. Basic
scriptures are described
JAINISM
The Religion of Asceticism
Jainism,
founded by Mahavira in the sixth century, has around two million adherents in India
most of whom are business people who have wealth and social importance far
beyond their numerical significance. Mahavira was part of a great creative
period of history which produced Gautama Buddha, Confucius, Lao-tzu, Zoroaster,
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, Thales, Anaximander, Xenophanes, Pythagoras, and
Heraclitus.
Jainism
(conqueror) began as a reformed movement in Hinduism. Both Jainism and Buddhism
denied the validity of the Vedas as inspired scripture and rejected the
religious implications of the Indian caste system.
Mahavira
was the son of a minor ruler in northeast India. Before his birth his mother is
said to have had fourteen marvelous dreams and their family suddenly prospered.
Mahavira married and was the father of a daughter. Despite his position and
wealth, he was not happy. At the age of thirty, after the death of his parents,
Mahavira bade farewell to his family and his wife and child, turned his back on
wealth and luxury and went off to join the ascetics in the pursuit of
salvation.
Not
finding salvation among ordinary ascetics, he went off on his own path of
extreme asceticism. He believed one should not injure any form of life (ahimsa)
and swept the path where he walked and strained all the water he drank. To
torment his body Mahavira went naked and sought the coldest spots in winter and
the hottest climates in summer. He begged for his food, preferring that which
was left over from the meals of others. When beaten or attacked by dogs he did
not resist. Legend tells of a time when he was meditating and some people built
a fire under him to see if he would resist; he did not. So as not to become
attached to people or things he never stayed more than one night at the same
place. He became indifferent to all things. During the thirteenth year,
squatting in the sun, he achieved release (moksha) and reached Nirvana.
After
he felt he had gained complete control over his body, Mahavira changed from
being a solitary ascetic to a leader and teacher of monks. He taught that the
world is made up of two substances, soul and matter. The cause of all misery is
the connection of the vile material body with the pure eternal spirit.
Salvation is liberating the soul from matter. The law of karma and
reincarnation are closely linked with this drama of the flesh and the spirit.
Salvation
of the soul must be accomplished by the individual himself; therefore, there
should be no worship or prayer. The gods are of little consequence; they are
simply beings living on a different plane from mankind who are busy working out
their own salvation. Although Mahavira taught that there is no personal God and
forbid worship and prayer, his followers worship him and pray to him. They
believe he was sinless, omniscient, pre-existent, and incarnate--the last of a
series of twenty-four saviors of men.
The
scriptures of Jainism are Agana (precepts) or Siddhantas-(treatises). The
language of these scriptures is one of the Prakrit vernaculars. Early
commentaries were written in Sanskrit. A few documents have been translated
into contemporary languages but most Jains are largely ignorant of their own
scriptures. The devout Jain is ascetic, humble, inoffensive, and unvindictive.
By
80 A. D. the Jains were divided into two sects. The Svetambara or "white
clad" live mainly in northern India today. They are more liberal in their
interpretation of Mahavirals teaching regarding nudity and allow their monks to
wear a white garment. Women are also allowed in their religion and monasteries
accepting the possibility that they may find salvation.
The
Digambara or "sky clad" live mainly in southern India. They adhere to
the old ideals that require their monks to go about naked; however, civil
authorities sometimes have required them to wear loin-cloths. The Digambara
sect believe women have no chance of achieving salvation until they are reborn
as men. Consequently women are prohibited from entering monasteries and
temples.
Jains
practice their religion in two distinct groups: common citizens and monks.
Monks lead the ideal life for a Jain and have the best chance for salvation.
They take five vows: non injury to life, to speak the truth, to not steal, to
renounce sexual pleasure and women in general, and to renounce all attachments.
Mahavira declared, "Women are the greatest temptation in the world."
Generally all Jains seek to follow the first three vows as much as possible.
The Jain doctrine of ahimsa was a potent influence in the lives of Mohandas
Gandi and Albert Schweitzer.
Today
Jainism is sometimes regarded as a minority sect of Hinduism. Jains are
forbidden from entering all occupations that take life or profit from taking
life. This has forced them into the commercial field. Their reputation for
honesty and high moral principles has made them excellent businessmen. It is a
paradox that a sect which began with the ideal of asceticism and poverty has
become one of the wealthiest classes in India!
An Introduction to
Sikhism
Dr.
Meredith Sprunger
This document contains a short historical overview of Sikhism
and its founder, Guru Nanak. The relationship between Sikhism, Hinduism and
Islam is briefly described.
The Religion of Syncretism
Sikhism
is the youngest of the world religions. It was founded by Nanak in the sixteenth
century and has approximately 6,000,000 adherents located chiefly in the Punjab
region of India. In a sense Sikhism may be regarded as yet another reform
movement in Hinduism. Nanak attempted to integrate the best in Hinduism and
Islam into a new inclusive religion. Nanak stands in a tradition of reformers.
An older contemporary, Kabir, is especially noted for his attempt to bring
Hinduism and Islam together.
Nanak
was born of common Hindu parents of the Khati (Kshatriya) caste in 1469. He was
a precocious youth who loved poetry and religion but was a failure at a variety
of occupations. He married at nineteen and was the father of two sons. Later he
left his wife and sons and went to the city of Sultanpur where he was a little
more successful in business pursuits.
Around
the age of thirty Nanak had a vision of God while meditating in the forest. He
was told he had been singled out as a prophet of the true religion. His message
was to be, "There is no Muslim and there is no Hindu." Following this
visionary experience, he became an evangelist of the gospel of unity between
these two religions.
Along
with his constant companion, the minstrel Mardana, Nanak traveled widely
throughout India preaching the essential unity of Islam and Hinduism. He wore a
mixed costume made up of both Hindu and Muslim clothing. They even made a
pilgrimage to Mecca. Wherever he went he tried to organize groups who accepted
his teachings. Nanak is reported to have performed miracles. His followers were
known as Sikhs (disciples). Toward the end of his life Nanak appointed his
disciple, Angad, as his successor.
In
October, 1538 Nanak was about to die. His Muslim converts wanted to bury him
and his Hindu converts wished to cremate him after death. To settle the
argument Nanak told each group to place flowers on either side of him and the
group whose flowers were still fresh in the morning could have his body. He
then drew the sheet over his head and became still. When the sheet was removed
the next morning both bouquets of flowers were in bloom but the body of Nanak
was gone. Thus, according to this legend, even in death the peaceful and loving
Nanak sought to bring harmony between Muslims and Hindus.
Nanak,
like Kabir and others, tried to synthesize the best elements of Islam and Hinduism.
He taught a devotional monotheism, referring to God as "The True
Name." Nanak rejected ahimsa thus allowing Sikhs to kill and eat animals.
He accepted the principle of reincarnation and the law of karma but eliminated
ceremonialism and ritual. Nanak also accepted the Hindu doctrine of Maya or
illusion. God created matter by drawing a veil of illusion over himself
producing all of the diverse forms of creation: the finite gods, Brahma,
Vishnu, and Shiva; the heavens, the hells, the earth, men, animals, and plants.
Salvation consists in becoming one with God. But salvation is not going to
Paradise after the last judgment but absorption in Nirvana---individuality
extinguished in absorption in God, the True Name.
The
scripture of Sikhism is the Granth (book) which is an anthology of many poems
somewhat like the Hebrew Psalms and wisdom literature. The Granth has many
authors and the Sikhs ascribe absolute authority to it. The first two sentences
of the Granth is prescribed as the first utterance for every Sikh each day,
"There is but one God, whose name is True, Creator, devoid of fear and
enmity, immortal, unborn, self-existent, great and bountiful. The True One is,
was, and also shall be." The main method of worship is meditation on God.
The need for a teacher and the Pure Congregation of disciples are important in
Sikhism. The good Sikh is pure in motive and action, serves others, honors
those who can teach him, and craves the Guru's word; loves his wife and
renounces all other women; avoids quarrelsome topics, is not arrogant, does not
trample on others and forsakes evil company.
The
first four of the ten gurus of Sikhism followed the teachings of Nanak. The
fifth guru, Arjan Des, turned from the pacificism of Nanak to a militant
stance. Under the persecution of Islam rulers Sikhism grew more defensive.
Gobin Singh, the tenth guru, introduced a ritual, the baptism of the sword, and
prepared the Sikhs for self-defense and war. He developed an elite class of
Sikhs known as Singhs (lions) who were distinguished from their fellows by
wearing long hair, beards, a comb, short trousers, a steel bracelet, and a
dagger. They were not allowed to use wine, tobacco, or any other stimulant. The
Singhs were incredible warriors and later the British used them as soldiers and
policemen throughout India and many other parts of the world.
Today
there are three main branches of Sikhism and many minor groups. The first sect
is called the Udasis which is basically an order of ascetics and holy men. They
frequently shave their heads and beards and are often active as missionaries.
The second sect is the Sahajdharis who reject militarism and prefer to be clean
shaven. The third sect is the Singhs already described. In temples the central
object of worship is a copy of the sacred Granth. Congregational worship
involves prayer, hymns, a sermon, and a communional meal. Since there are no
Sikh priests, group meetings may be led by any member of the community. All
Sikhs give special attention to the Takht (throne) of Sikhism with its golden
temple at Amritsar.
An Introduction to
Taoism
Dr.
Meredith Sprunger
This document contains a brief overview of Taoism and a
description of basic Taoist beliefs.
The Religion of the Divine Way
The
religions of China are rooted in ancient religious concepts. The Chinese people
recognized many gods and spirits. The good spirits were known as Shen and the
evil spirits were called Kwei. The common people performed sacrifices and
rituals. They believed the universe was composed of the negative force of
nature, Yin, and the positive force of nature, Yang. Filial piety and ancestor
worship were practiced. They predicted the future by divination through the
methodology of I Ching. Following the eleventh century the Chou rulers for
political reasons promoted a belief in Shang Ti, the one supreme God who
controlled the destiny of men and rulers.
The
origins of Taoism are unclear. Traditionally, Lao-tzu who lived in the sixth
century is regarded as its founder. Its early philosophic foundations and its later
beliefs and rituals are two completely different ways of life. Today (1982)
Taoism claims 31,286,000 followers.
Legend
says that Lao-tzu was immaculately conceived by a shooting star; carried in his
mother's womb for eighty-two years; and born a full grown wise old man. It is
said that he was the keeper of the royal archives but tired of the artificial
court life and retired. Lao-tzu traveled west into the mountains and sought to
leave the country at the Hankao Pass. The guard at the gate recognized the wise
old man and refused to allow him to leave until he had committed to writing the
sum of his wisdom. He retired for three days and returned with a slim
manuscript entitled Tao Te Ching (The Way and Its Power). After leaving he was
never seen again.
Except
for the Analects of Confucius, the Tao Te Chin is the most influential book in
Chinese literature. It has been the object of at least a thousand commentaries
and has been translated into English more than forty times. The book was
probably developed over the centuries and evolved into its present form around
the fourth century B. C.
The
chief religious teaching of the Tao Te Ching is concerning one eternal Supreme
Being: "Original, primeval, the Ultimate... sustaining source of all
things ... an All-Father ... Makes its knower fearless, invulnerable,
immortal." The ethical ideal of the Tao Te Ching is to recompense injury
with kindness and achieve a quiet, restful, humble simplicity in living. The
teachings of early Taoism center around the following themes:
1.
The basic unity behind the universe is a mysterious and undefinable force
called the Tao. Tao produces all things and all things go back to their common
origin and blend into one. Absolute truth and absolute good are unknowable.
2.
Life is the greatest of all possessions. The chief aim of human existence is to
attain fullness of life by attunement with the Tao. When man seeks his own plan
rather than the eternal plan of the great Tao, he precipates ills, suffering,
and evil.
3.
Live in primitive simplicity. Leave all things take their natural course.
Education, wealth, power, and family ties are worthless impediments to living.
The sage can know the whole world without going out of his door. The further
one travels, the less one knows. The Tao is characterized by its quietude of
power, its production without possession, action without self-assertion,
development without domination. "Aim at extreme disinterestedness and
maintain the utmost possible calm ... There is no guilt greater than to
sanction ambition ... Only quiet non-striving is successful." Kindness,
sincerity, and humility should be cultivated.
4.
Pomp and glory are to be despised. The tree which stands higher than its
neighbors is the first to be felled by the woodsman. The weak and humble
overcome the strong and proud. The highest goodness is like water, it seeks the
lower levels; therefore it is near to Tao. The least government is the best
government. Weapons are instruments of ill omen; he who has Tao will have
nothing to do with them.
This
early Taoism was more a philosophy than a religion. it was concerned about the
quality of life and had little interest in the heavens, gods, rituals, or life
after death. During the fourth and third centuries B.C., in addition to Taoism,
three major schools of thought struggled for dominance in China.- The
Confucians believed in an idealized feudal system characterized by social
propriety. The Legalists were tough-minded realists who believed human nature
is wicked and lazy and must be ruled with a strong hand. The Mohists taught the
values of the traditional religions, especially that men should love one
another. They were pacifists who recognized the necessity of self defense.
Later
Taosim became a religion of the masses and deteriorated into polytheism,
demonology, witchcraft, magic, and occultism. It borrowed from Mahayana
Buddhism and its teaching of an afterlife with heavens, hells, and judgment and
developed a monasticism after the Buddhist pattern. The upper classes and
intellectuals of twentieth century China continued reading the classics of
philosophical Taoism but regarded the religion as only fit for the ignorant
masses. The current Chinese government look upon it, and all forms of religion,
as superstition.
An Introduction to Confucianism
Dr.
Meredith Sprunger
This document contains a brief historical overview of Confucianism
and a description of basic Confucian beliefs.
The Religion of Social Propriety
Confucianism
has been the chief cultural influence of China for centuries. The teachings of
Confucius were never intended to be a religion. It has no revelatory sacred
writings, no priesthood, no doctrine of an afterlife, and frowned on asceticism
and monasticism. Later Confucius was deified and raised to the rank of Emperor
and Co-assessor with the deities in Heaven and Earth. Official animal
sacrifices were made at the tomb of Confucius for centuries. In 1982
Confucianism claims 156,070,100 adherents.
The
Chinese name of Confucius was Kung. His disciples called him Kung, the master
(Kung Fu-tse) which western missionaries Latinized to "Confucius." He
was born in 551 B. C. of an aristocratic family who had lost their wealth and
position. His father, who died before Confucius was three, is said to have been
a famous warrior of gigantic size and strength who was seventy years old when
Confucius was conceived. Confucius was the youngest of eleven children. He grew
up in poverty but received a good education. In his teens he accepted a minor
government position, married and fathered a son but the marriage ended in
divorce.
In
his twenties, following his mother's death, Confucius set himself up as a
teacher. He taught the traditional Six Disciplines: history, poetry,
government, propriety (ethics), music, and divination. Confucius became one of
the great teachers of history but aspired to public office. He had supreme
confidence in his ability to reorder society.
Legend
has it that at the age of fifty Confucius ascended through the offices of
Minister of Public Works and Minister of Justice to Prime Minister. His
government was ideal. Enemies, however, conspired against him and he was forced
to retire at the age of fifty-five. In reality, scholarly speculation has
assumed that contemporary rulers were much too afraid of Confucius' candor and
integrity to appoint him to any position involving power.
During
the next twelve years Confucius wandered from place to place with a few of his
disciples. He was jeered at and even placed in jail. At the age of sixty-seven
a position was found for him as an advisor to the Duke of Ai. During the next
years he spent his time teaching and compiling some of the classic Chinese
texts. He died in 479 B. C. Confucius was not only a wise man, he was an
incorruptible, human-hearted man. Although largely defeated in his purpose of
reforming society, he died with courage, saying, "There is not one in the
empire that will make me his master!"
Li
(social propriety) is the greatest principle of living. When society lives by
li it moves smoothly. Confucius saw the embodiment of this society in the
idealized form of feudalistic government, illustrated by the Five
Relationships: kindness in the father, filial piety in the son; gentility in
the eldest brother, humility and respect in the younger; righteousness behavior
in the husband, obedience in the wife; humane consideration in elders,
deference in juniors; benevolence in rulers, loyalty in ministers and subjects.
Li may also refer to the "middle way" in all things.
Just
as li is the outward expression of the superior man, jen (goodness, humaneness,
love) is the inner ideal. Confucius taught that men should love one another and
practice respect and courtesy. If li and jen were operative in a person, the
end product would be the Confucian goal: the superior man. Confucius believed
in the natural goodness or at least the natural perfectibility of man. He
stressed government by virtue (Te) and the arts of peace (Wen). Since filial
piety is the root of all virtue this concern for parental respect is seen in
the veneration of age and ancestor worship. Confucius was a pragmatic man who
thought one should respect the spirits but keep them at a distance.
Confucius
regarded himself as a transmitter, not the originator, of social values and
wisdom. Although Confucianism does not claim revelatory scriptures, the Five
Classics and the Four Books are regarded as the touch-stone of Confucian
conduct and wisdom. Mencius and Hsun Tzu were the great expositors of Confucius
in the fourth and third centuries B.C. and did much to popularize and spread
his teachings. During the Han Dynasty there developed a cult of Confucius
himself. By the sixth century A.D. every prefecture in China had a temple to
honor Confucius.
The
Confucian cult was checked in 1503 when the images of Confucius were ordered
removed from the temples and replaced with wooden tablets inscribed with his
teachings. All titles were removed and he was spoken of simply as "Master
Kung, the perfect teacher of antiquity." In 1906 there was an attempt to
revive the Confucian cult but with the birth of the People's Republic of China
all sacrifices to Confucius and other religious observances were officially
abandoned.
An Introduction to Shinto
Dr. Meredith Sprunger
This document contains a brief introduction to Shinto and a
description of its influence in shaping Buddhism in Japan. Basic beliefs of
Shintoism are described as well as a brief outline of present day Shinto.
The Religion of Nature Worship, Emperor
Worship, and Purity
Shinto
(the way of the gods), traditionally dating back to 660 B. C., is a loosely
organized religion of the Japanese people embracing a wide variety of beliefs
and practices. In its most basic sense Shinto is a religious form of Japanese
patriotism. The mythology of Shintoism teaches that Japan and the Japanese
people were brought into being by special divine creation and that their
emperors were literally descendants of the Sun Goddess. In Japan a person may
in good conscience be a Buddhist, a Confucian, and a member of a Shinto sect at
the same time. Today (1982) Shintoism reports 57,154,200 members.
The
two most important sacred books of Shintoism are the Kojiki (Chronicles of
Ancient Events) and the Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan). The Kojiki mythology
reports that in the beginning were the kami (gods, mana, occult force). Two of
these primeval kami or deities were Izanagi (male-who-invites) and Izanami
(female who-invites). After giving birth to the land of Japan they produced
many other kami.
Izanami
died after giving birth to the kami of fire. Izanagi journeyed to Hades to find
her. Finding her decayed body crawling with maggots he fled in horror back to
the land of the living. To purify himself he entered a body of water and when
he washed his left eye there came into existence the Sun Goddess, the Great
Kami Amaterasu; and when he washed his right eye Tsukiyom the Moon Kami,
emerged. After years of struggle the Japanese people were waring against each
other and the Sun Goddess sent her grandson, Ninigi, to become the first
emperor of Japan. Shinto is unique among the religions of the world in
representing the Supreme Being as feminine in gender.
Although
mythological tradition has the first Japanese emperor enthroned in the seventh
century B.C., modern scholars think the actual history of Japan did not begin
until the third century A. D. After the fourth century A. D. the Japanese came
under the influence of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. By the end of the
sixth century Mahayana Buddhism had taken a firm foothold on Japan. It was at
this time that the term "Shinto" was introduced to distinguish the
native Japanese religion from the new foreign religion.
Little
by little the boundaries between Buddhism and Shintoism were obliterated. The
concerns of day-to-day life became the domain of the Shinto side of religion
while the concerns of the afterlife were served by the Buddhists.. The Japanese
developed distinctive forms of Buddhism such as Zen, Pure Land, and Nichiren.
Shinto
almost died out as a viable religion but in the seventeenth century it was
revitalized by tough-minded military leaders. A combination of Shinto and
Confucianism was used to develop the warrior code of Bushido. The samurai
(knights) who followed this code emphasized loyalty, gratitude, courage,
justice, truthfulness, politeness, reserve, and honor. In Japan suicide has
often been encouraged to avoid dishonor, escape from a bad life situation, or
as a means of protest. When dishonored the Bushido warrior was expected to kill
himself by hara-kiri (disembowelment).
Shinto
teaches the importance of personal cleanliness and the sense of communal guilt.
Apart from subservience to the Emperor, Shintoism has no definite set of theological
beliefs or code of morality. Morality and theology are naturalistic. Motoori
(1730-1801), one of the most important scholars in the history of Shintoism,
explains the lack of ethics in Shintoism: "It is because the Japanese were
truly moral in their practice that they require no theory of morals."
After
Commodore Perry in the mid nineteenth century opened Japan to outside influence
sweeping changes have occurred in the country. The Constitution of 1889
established a state supported Shinto but other religions were allowed to exist
and propagate. State Shinto supported thousands of shrines and priests. The
grand imperial shrine at Ise was dedicated to the mother goddess of Japan,
Amaterasu. Every loyal Japanese citizen wishes to visit the Ise Shrine at least
once in their life time.
There
are many Shinto sects which tend to be oriented in three major categories.
First, those whose emphasis is on mountain or nature worship. Second, those who
stress shamanism, divination, and faith healing such as the Tenri-kyo
(Teachings of Divine Reason) sect. The third type of sectarian Shinto is more
in tune with historic Shinto, reviving the myths of the origin of Japan,
stressing purification rites, fasting, breath control, and other techniques
similar to the Yoga cults of Hinduism. Domestic Shinto is practiced in many
homes. The kami-dana (god shelf) is found in residences. Flowers or food may be
placed before this altar daily or brief prayers and devotions may take place.
Shinto
had become such an inseparable part of Japanese militarism the American
occupation forces felt it necessary to direct the abolition of state support of
Shinto in December of 1945. New Year's Day 1946 Emperor Hirohito disavowed the
belief in his divine nature and complete religious freedom was guaranteed to
every citizen.
An Introduction to
Zoroastrianism
Dr.
Meredith Sprunger
This document contains a brief history of Zoroastrianism and an
outline of basic Zoroastrian beliefs.
The Religion of the Free Will Choice
Between Good and Evil
Zoroastrianism
is closely related to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Concepts of Satan,
angelology, demonology, a deliverer, future life, Paradise and judgment in
these religions may have been directly or indirectly derived from
Zoroastrianism. Although it started with the intent of being a voluntarily
accepted and universally adopted religion, today it is largely a hereditary
faith reporting (1982) 271,000 followers living mostly in India and Iran.
The
origins of Zoroastrian religion are shrouded in mystery. ' The ancient
inhabitants of the Persian region were Aryan nature worshipers who venerated a
series of deities known as daevas. Above these minor deities were higher gods
among which the most important and popular was Mitra, the god of light,
benefactor of cattle and upholder of loyalty and obedience. Part of these
Aryans migrated into India which explains why many of the gods and practices of
Vedic Hinduism and the ancient Persians are the same.
Zoroaster's
birth date in uncertain. Tradition says he was pre-existent and born of a
fifteen year old virgin in 660 B.C. Many marvels accompanied his birth. His
name, Zarathustra Spitama, indicates he was born into a warrior clan that was
connected with the royal family of ancient Persia. At fifteen he put on the
kusti, a sacred string belt symbolic of his passage into manhood as a member of
his religion. He spent years, partially in solitude, searching for answers to
religious questions. At the age of thirty Zoroaster had a vision of the angel
Vohu Mana,, who appeared nine times the size of a man. The angel told him there
was only one true God, Ahura Mazda, and that he was to become the prophet of
Ahura Mazda. During the next ten years Zoroaster had other visions in which
each of the archangels of Ahura Mazda appeared and revealed further truth to
him.
He
began preaching this new revelation but with no success. In ten years the only
convert he won was a cousin. The turning point came when he met the Aryan King
Vishtaspa. In a struggle with local priests he was thrown in jail but after two
years won Vishtaspa to his faith, tradition says, by his wondrous cure of
Vishtaspa's favorite black horse. The king put all of his power behind the
propagation of the faith. Zoroaster became a leader in the nation and married
three wives and was the father of six children.
The
next twenty years was spent vigorously promulgating the faith among Persians
and fighting two holy wars in its defense. During a war with the Turanians an
enemy soldier found the seventy-seven year old prophet tending the sacred flame
in a fire temple and killed him.
Zoroaster
taught that Ahura Mazda (Who is also given many other names) was the one true
God and the nature gods or daevas (devils) his people worshipped were false
gods. Ahura Mazda reveals himself to man through six modes (called archangels
by Western scholars). Three were masculine and three were feminine in nature.
Together with Ahura Mazda they compose seven sources of reality. The masculine
immortals are Asha (knowledge of the law of God), Vohu-Mana (love), and
Kshathra (loving service). The three feminine immortals are Armaiti (piety),
Haurvatat (wholeness or perfection) and Ameretat (immortality).
The
inclusive name of Zoroastrian scriptures is Avesta (knowledge) and it is
divided into five main parts: Yasna (worship) Gathas (Psalms), Vendidad (law
agains demons), Yashts (worship hymns), and the Khorda-Avesta (litanies and
prayers). In Zoroastrianism there are a limitless number of angels. Two angels
are said to record each person's good and evil deeds. Mithra is the strongest
of these heavenly beings and the ideal of soldiers. Zoroaster approached the
problem of evil more systematically than do other world religions. His position
is often referred to as a dualism but this is incorrect. He taught there were
two spirits emanating from Ahura Mazda. One is Spenta Mainyu, the Beneficent
Spirit; the other is Angra Mainyu, the Evil Spirit (sometimes known as Ahriman
or Satan). These spirits or forces exist and operate much like the yin and yang
of Taoism.
Zoroaster
saw the forces of good struggling with the forces of evil in the world. Man is
born in a pure and sinless state and has complete freedom of will to co-operate
with good or evil and shape his destiny. It is possible for man to choose the
path of righteousness and achieve perfection in this life. He believed in a law
of retribution which is called kanna in Hinduism and is stated by St. Paul as,
"Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he reap." Man is entirely
responsible for his destiny
In
Zoroaster's eschatology the soul stays with the body for three days. On the
fourth day the soul journeys to the place of judgment. If the preponderance of
his life has been good the soul goes to Paradise; if evil it is sentenced to
hell. The descriptions of hell by Zoroastrianism is suited to the sins of the
person and filled with revolting horrors. These souls will abide in heaven or
in hell until the final consummation of the world established by Ahura Mazda.
Before the end of the world there will be three saviors who will come at
intervals of one thousand years. At the end of the age Ahura Mazda will wipe
out every trace of the evil work of Angra Mainyu. The souls from hell will be
brought up and purified and will join the resurrected souls of the righteous
and the world will enter a new cycle of perfection where no one will grow old
or decay and Ahura Mazda will reign supreme.
Zoroastrianism
teaches concern for good thought, good word, and good deed as expressed in
truthfulness, chastity, justice, compassion, care of the soil and natural
elements,, charity, education, and service. Their worship consists mainly in
prayers requesting assistance in living righteous lives. They may offer
sandalwood to be burned in the sacred fire which burns eternally in their
temples. At the age of seven in India and ten in Iran the young Zoroastrian is
received into his faith with the investiture of a sacred shirt (sade) and the
sacred thread (kusti) and he must wear them the rest of his life except when
bathing. There are ceremonies for all of the important points of life. At death
the body dare not contaminate ground, fire, or water so it is placed in a
Dakhma (tower of silence) where it is eaten by vultures or beasts of prey--or
may be buried in a stone casket lined with lead.
The
Persian empire was conquered by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B. C.
Mithraic cults were established throughout the entire Mediterranean world and
were a major rival of early Christianity. There was a revival of Zoroastrianism
in the third century A. D. under the Sassanid rulers of Persia. When they were
conquered by Muslim warriors in the seventh century followers of Zoroastrianism
were eventually forced to convert to Islam or flee the country. Many followed
their ancient kinsmen to India where they were known as Parsees. When the
British arrived they favored the Parsee because they were not encumbered with
the caste system or food taboos and because they valued education. The Parsee became
leaders in education, business, and finance. Today they make up a small
minority in India and an even smaller minority in Iran known as Gabars
(infidels).
